Renaissance What Was the Difference Between Medieval Art and Renaissance Art

Overview of art in Germany

German art has a long and distinguished tradition in the visual arts, from the earliest known work of figurative art to its current output of gimmicky fine art.

Federal republic of germany has only been united into a single country since the 19th century, and defining its borders has been a notoriously difficult and painful process. For earlier periods German art oftentimes effectively includes that produced in German-speaking regions including Austria, Alsace and much of Switzerland, besides as largely German-speaking cities or regions to the east of the modern High german borders.

Although tending to exist neglected relative to Italian and French contributions from the signal of view of the English language-speaking world, German art has played a crucial office in the development of Western fine art, particularly Celtic art, Carolingian art and Ottonian art. From the development of Romanesque art, France and Italian republic began to lead developments for the balance of the Middle Ages, but the product of an increasingly wealthy Germany remained highly important.

The German language Renaissance developed in rather dissimilar directions to the Italian Renaissance, and was initially dominated past the key figure of Albrecht Dürer and the early High german domination of printing. The final phase of the Renaissance, Northern Mannerism, was centred around the edges of the German lands, in Flanders and the Royal capital of Prague, only, peculiarly in architecture, the German language Baroque and Rococo took up these imported styles with enthusiasm. The German origins of Romanticism did non pb to an every bit cardinal position in the visual arts, simply German language participation in the many broadly Modernist movements following the plummet of Academic art has been increasing important.

Prehistory to Tardily Artifact [edit]

Venus of Hohle Fels, 35,000 to xl,000 BP, the oldest known figurative work of fine art (true height half dozen cm (2.4 in)).

The area of mod Frg is rich in finds of prehistoric art, including the Venus of Hohle Fels. This appears to be the oldest undisputed example of Upper Paleolithic art and figurative sculpture of the human form in full general, from over 35,000 years BP, which was only discovered in 2008;^[1] the better-known Venus of Willendorf (24–22,000 BP) comes from a little way over the Austrian border. The spectacular finds of Bronze Age golden hats are centred on Germany, as was the "central" form of Urnfield culture, and Hallstatt culture. In the Iron Age the "Celtic" La Tène culture centred on Western Germany and Eastern France, and Federal republic of germany has produced many major finds of Celtic art like the elite burials at Reinheim and Hochdorf, and oppida towns similar Glauberg, Manching and Heuneburg.^{[ citation needed ]}

After lengthy wars, the Roman Empire settled its frontiers in Germania with the Limes Germanicus to include much of the south and west of modern Germany. The German language provinces produced art in provincial versions of Roman styles, but centres there, as over the Rhine in France, were big-scale producers of fine Ancient Roman pottery, exported all over the Empire.^{[ citation needed ]} Rheinzabern was one of the largest, which has been well-excavated and has a dedicated museum.^[two]

Non-Romanized areas of the afterwards Roman period fall under Migration Period art, notable for metalwork, peculiarly jewellery (the largest pieces apparently mainly worn by men).^{[ commendation needed ]}

Middle Ages [edit]

German medieval art actually begins with the Frankish Empire of Charlemagne (d. 814), the outset land to rule the corking bulk of the mod territory of Germany, equally well as French republic and much of Italy. Carolingian art was restricted to a relatively small number of objects produced for a circle effectually the court and a number of Imperial abbeys they sponsored, but had a huge influence on afterwards Medieval art beyond Europe. The virtually mutual type of object to survive is the illuminated manuscript; wall paintings were evidently common just, similar the buildings that housed them, have well-nigh all vanished. The earlier centres of illumination were located in modernistic France, only later on Metz in Lorraine and the Abbey of Saint Gall in modern Switzerland came to rival them. The Drogo Sacramentary and Folchard Psalter are among the manuscripts they produced.^[3]

No Carolingian monumental sculpture survives, although perhaps the about important patronage of Charlemagne was his commissioning of a life-size gilt effigy of Christ on a crucifix for his Palatine Chapel in Aachen; this is merely known from literary references and was probably gold foil around a wooden base, probably modelled with a gesso layer, like the after and rather crumpled Golden Madonna of Essen. Early Christian art had not featured monumental sculptures of religious figures as opposed to rulers, as these were strongly associated past the Church Fathers with the cult idols of Ancient Roman organized religion. Byzantine fine art and modern Eastern Orthodox religious art have maintained the prohibition to the present day, but Western art was evidently decisively influenced by the example of Charlemagne to abandon it. Charlemagne's circumvolve wished to revive the glories of classical style, which they generally knew in its Late Antique course, and also to compete with Byzantine art, in which they appear to have been helped by refugee artists from the convulsions of the Byzantine iconoclasm. Every bit Charlemagne himself does not appear to have been very interested in visual art, his political rivalry with the Byzantine Empire, supported by the Papacy, may have contributed to the strong pro-prototype position expressed in the Libri Carolini, which set out the position on images held with niggling variation by the Western Church building for the residue of the Heart Ages, and across.^[4]

Under the next Ottonian dynasty, whose core territory approximated more than closely to modernistic Federal republic of germany, Republic of austria, and German-speaking Switzerland, Ottonian art was mainly a product of the large monasteries, peculiarly Reichenau which was the leading Western artistic centre in the second half of the tenth century. The Reichenau way uses simplified and patterned shapes to create strongly expressive images, far from the classical aspirations of Carolingian art, and looking forward to the Romanesque. The wooden Gero Cross of 965–970 in Cologne Cathedral is both the oldest and the finest early medieval about life-size crucifix figure; art historians had been reluctant to credit the records giving its date until they were confirmed by dendrochronology in 1976.^[five] As in the rest of Europe, metalwork was still the well-nigh prestigious form of art, in works like the jewelled Cross of Lothair, fabricated about chiliad, probably in Cologne.^{[ citation needed ]}

Romanesque art was the first artistic motion to embrace the whole of Western Europe, though with regional varieties. Germany was a primal part of the movement, though German language Romanesque architecture made rather less use of sculpture than that of France. With increasing prosperity massive churches were built in cities all over Germany, no longer merely those patronized by the Imperial circle.^[6] The French invented the Gothic style, and Frg was slow to adopt it, but one time it had done so Germans made it their ain, and connected to use it long after the residue of Europe had abandoned it. According to Henri Focillon, Gothic allowed German fine art "to define for the commencement time certain aspects of its native genius-a vigorous and emphatic formulation of life and grade, in which theatrical ostentation mingled with violent emotional frankness."^[7] The Bamberg Horseman of the 1330s, in Bamberg Cathedral, is the oldest large postal service-antique continuing stone equestrian statue; more medieval princely tomb monuments accept survived from Germany than France or England. Romanesque and Early Gothic churches had wall paintings in local versions of international styles, of which few artists' names are known.^[8]

The court of the Holy Roman Emperor, then based in Prague, played an important part in forming the International Gothic style in the late 14th century.^[9] The style was spread around the wealthy cities of Northern Deutschland by artists such Conrad von Soest in Westphalia, Meister Bertram in Hamburg, and later Stefan Lochner in Cologne. Hamburg was 1 of the cities in the Hanseatic League, when the League was at meridian of its prosperity. Bertram was succeeded in the metropolis by artists such as Master Francke, the Master of the Malchin Altar, Hans Bornemann, Hinrik Funhof and Wilm Dedeke who survived into the Renaissance period. Hanseatic artists painted commissions for Baltic cities in Scandinavia and the modern Baltic states to the east. In the south, the Master of the Bamberg Altar is the kickoff pregnant painter based in Nuremberg, while the Principal of Heiligenkreuz then Michael Pacher worked in Austria.^{[ citation needed ]}

Like that of Pacher, the workshop of Bernt Notke, a painter from the Hanseatic city of Lübeck, both painted altarpieces or carved them in the increasingly elaborate painted and gold way used as frameworks or alternatives for painted panels. South German wood sculpture was of import in developing new subjects that reflected the intensely emotional devotional life encouraged past movements in late medieval Catholicism such as German language mysticism. These are often known in English equally andachtsbilder (devotional images) and include the Pietà, Pensive Christ, Homo of Sorrows, Arma Christi, Veil of Veronica, the severed head of John the Baptist, and the Virgin of Sorrows, many of which would spread beyond Europe and remain popular until the Baroque and, in popular religious imagery, beyond. Indeed "Late Gothic Baroque" is a term sometimes used to depict hyper-busy and emotional 15th-century fine art, above all in Frg.^[ten]

Martin Schongauer, who worked in Alsace in the last function of the 15th century, was the culmination of late Gothic German language painting, with a sophisticated and harmonious style, but he increasingly spent his fourth dimension producing engravings, for which national and international channels of distribution had developed, then that his prints were known in Italy and other countries. His predecessors were the Master of the Playing Cards and Master Due east. S., both also from the Upper Rhine region.^[eleven] High german conservatism is shown in the belatedly use of gold backgrounds, yet used by many artists well into the 15th century.^[12]

Renaissance painting and prints [edit]

The concept of the Northern Renaissance or High german Renaissance is somewhat confused by the continuation of the utilise of elaborate Gothic ornamentation until well into the 16th century, even in works that are undoubtedly Renaissance in their treatment of the homo effigy and other respects. Classical ornament had niggling historical resonance in much of Germany, but in other respects Germany was very quick to follow developments, peculiarly in adopting printing with movable type, a German invention that remained almost a German monopoly for some decades, and was first brought to nigh of Europe, including France and Italy, by Germans.^{[ citation needed ]}

Printmaking by woodcut and engraving (perhaps some other German invention) was already more than developed in Germany and the Low Countries than anywhere else, and the Germans took the atomic number 82 in developing book illustrations, typically of a relatively low artistic standard, but seen all over Europe, with the woodblocks oftentimes being lent to printers of editions in other cities or languages. The greatest artist of the German Renaissance, Albrecht Dürer, began his career as an amateur to a leading workshop in Nuremberg, that of Michael Wolgemut, who had largely abased his painting to exploit the new medium. Dürer worked on the most extravagantly illustrated book of the period, the Nuremberg Chronicle, published by his godfather Anton Koberger, Europe's largest printer-publisher at the fourth dimension.^[13]

After completing his apprenticeship in 1490, Dürer travelled in Deutschland for four years, and Italy for a few months, before establishing his own workshop in Nuremberg. He rapidly became famous all over Europe for his energetic and balanced woodcuts and engravings, while besides painting. Though retaining a distinctively German style, his work shows strong Italian influence, and is often taken to represent the start of the German Renaissance in visual art, which for the next 40 years replaced the Netherlands and France as the area producing the greatest innovation in Northern European art. Dürer supported Martin Luther but continued to create Madonnas and other Catholic imagery, and paint portraits of leaders on both sides of the emerging split of the Protestant Reformation.^[13]

Dürer died in 1528, before it was clear that the split up of the Reformation had become permanent, but his pupils of the following generation were unable to avert taking sides. Near leading German artists became Protestants, but this deprived them of painting most religious works, previously the mainstay of artists' acquirement. Martin Luther had objected to much Catholic imagery, but not to imagery itself, and Lucas Cranach the Elder, a close friend of Luther, had painted a number of "Lutheran altarpieces", mostly showing the Last Supper, some with portraits of the leading Protestant divines as the Twelve Apostles. This stage of Lutheran fine art was over before 1550, probably nether the more fiercely aniconic influence of Calvinism, and religious works for public display almost ceased to be produced in Protestant areas. Presumably largely because of this, the development of German art had virtually ceased by almost 1550, but in the preceding decades German artists had been very fertile in developing alternative subjects to replace the gap in their order books. Cranach, autonomously from portraits, developed a format of sparse vertical portraits of provocative nudes, given classical or Biblical titles.^[14]

Lying somewhat outside these developments is Matthias Grünewald, who left very few works, merely whose masterpiece, his Isenheim Altarpiece (completed 1515), has been widely regarded every bit the greatest High german Renaissance painting since it was restored to critical attention in the 19th century. Information technology is an intensely emotional work that continues the German Gothic tradition of unrestrained gesture and expression, using Renaissance compositional principles, but all in that most Gothic of forms, the multi-winged triptych.^[15]

The Danube School is the name of a circle of artists of the first third of the 16th century in Bavaria and Austria, including Albrecht Altdorfer, Wolf Huber and Augustin Hirschvogel. With Altdorfer in the pb, the school produced the first examples of independent mural art in the West (nearly ane,000 years later People's republic of china), in both paintings and prints.^[16] Their religious paintings had an expressionist fashion somewhat similar to Grünewald'south. Dürer'due south pupils Hans Burgkmair and Hans Baldung Grien worked largely in prints, with Baldung developing the topical field of study matter of witches in a number of enigmatic prints.^[17]

Hans Holbein the Elderberry and his brother Sigismund Holbein painted religious works in the late Gothic style. Hans the Elderberry was a pioneer and leader in the transformation of German art from the Gothic to the Renaissance style. His son, Hans Holbein the Younger was an important painter of portraits and a few religious works, working mainly in England and Switzerland. Holbein'due south well known series of small woodcuts on the Trip the light fantastic of Death chronicle to the works of the Little Masters, a group of printmakers who specialized in very small and highly detailed engravings for conservative collectors, including many erotic subjects.^[xviii]

The outstanding achievements of the first one-half of the 16th century were followed past several decades with a remarkable absence of noteworthy German art, other than achieved portraits that never rival the achievement of Holbein or Dürer. The next significant German artists worked in the rather artificial way of Northern Mannerism, which they had to learn in Italy or Flemish region. Hans von Aachen and the Netherlandish Bartholomeus Spranger were the leading painters at the Imperial courts in Vienna and Prague, and the productive Netherlandish Sadeler family of engravers spread out across Federal republic of germany, amongst other counties.^[19] This style was continued for another generation by Bartholomeus Strobel, an instance of an essentially High german creative person born and working in Silesia, in today'due south Poland, until he emigrated to escape the Thirty Years War and become painter at the Polish court. Adam Elsheimer, the virtually influential German artist in the 17th century, spent his whole mature career in Italian republic, where he began by working for another émigré Hans Rottenhammer. Both produced highly finished chiffonier paintings, mostly on copper, with classical themes and landscape backgrounds.^{[ citation needed ]}

Sculpture [edit]

In Catholic parts of Southward Frg the Gothic tradition of wood carving continued to flourish until the cease of the 18th century, adapting to changes in fashion through the centuries. Veit Stoss (d. 1533), Tilman Riemenschneider (d.1531) and Peter Vischer the Elder (d. 1529) were Dürer's contemporaries, and their long careers covered the transition between the Gothic and Renaissance periods, although their ornamentation often remained Gothic even afterward their compositions began to reflect Renaissance principles.^[twenty]

2 and a half centuries later, Johann Joseph Christian and Ignaz Günther were leading masters in the late Bizarre period, both dying in the belatedly 1770s, barely a decade before the French Revolution. A vital element in the effect of German Baroque interiors was the work of the Wessobrunner School, a subsequently term for the stuccoists of the late 17th and 18th centuries. Another manifestation of High german sculptural skill was in porcelain; the about famous modeller is Johann Joachim Kaendler of the Meissen factory in Dresden, but the best work of Franz Anton Bustelli for the Nymphenburg Porcelain Factory in Munich is often considered the greatest achievement of 18th-century porcelain.^[21]

17th to 19th-century painting [edit]

Baroque, Rococo and Neoclassicism [edit]

Baroque painting was irksome to arrive in Germany, with very little before most 1650, but one time established seems to have suited German taste well. Baroque and Rococo periods saw German art producing by and large works derivative of developments elsewhere, though numbers of skilled artists in diverse genres were active. The period remains little-known outside Germany, and though it "never made any claim to exist among the bully schools of painting", its neglect by non-German art history remains striking.^[22] Many distinguished foreign painters spent periods working in Germany for princes, amidst them Bernardo Bellotto in Dresden and elsewhere, and Gianbattista Tiepolo, who spent three years painting the Würzburg Residence with his son. Many German painters worked abroad, including Johann Liss who worked mainly in Venice, Joachim von Sandrart and Ludolf Bakhuisen, the leading marine artist of the final years of Dutch Golden Age painting. In the late 18th century the portraitist Heinrich Füger and his student Johann Peter Krafft, whose best known works are three large murals in the Hofburg, had both moved to Vienna as students and stayed at that place.^[23]

Neoclassicism appears rather earlier in Germany than in France, with Anton Raphael Mengs (1728–79), the Danish painter Asmus Jacob Carstens (1754–98), and the sculptor Gottfried Schadow (1764–1850). Mengs was ane of the most highly regarded artists of his day, working in Rome, Madrid and elsewhere, and finding an early on Neo-Classical manner that now seems rather effete, although his portraits are more effective. Carstens' shorter career was turbulent and troubled, leaving a trail of unfinished works, but through pupils and friends such as Gottlieb Schick, Joseph Anton Koch and Bonaventura Genelli, more influential.^[24] Koch was born in the mountains of the Austrian Tyrol and became the leading Continental painter of landscapes, concentrating on mountain views, despite spending much of his career in Rome.^{[ citation needed ]}

Daniel Chodowiecki was built-in in Danzig, and at least partly identified as Polish, although he just spoke High german and French. His paintings and hundreds of prints, volume illustrations and political cartoons are an invaluable visual record of the everyday life and the increasingly complex mentality of Enlightenment Germany, and its emerging Nationalism.^[25] The Swiss-born Anton Graff was a prolific portraitist in Dresden, who painted literary figures as well as the court. The Tischbein family unit dynasty were solid all-rounders who covered most of the 18th century between them, as did the Zick family, initially mainly painters of grand Baroque ceilings, who were still active in the 20th century in the person of the illustrator Alexander Zick.^[26] Both the Asam brothers, and Johann Baptist Zimmermann and his blood brother, were able between them to provide a complete service for commissions for churches and palaces, designing the building and executing the stucco and wall-paintings. The combined event of all the elements of these buildings in South Germany, Republic of austria and Bohemia, especially their interiors, stand for some of the most complete and extreme realizations of the Baroque aspiration to overwhelm the viewer with the "radiant fairy globe of the nobleman's dwelling", or the "foretaste of the glories of Paradise" in the case of churches.^[27]

The earliest German academy was the Akademie der Künste founded in Berlin in 1696, and through the side by side ii centuries a number of other cities established their own institutions, in parallel with developments in other European nations. In Germany the uncertain market for art in a country divided into a multitude of pocket-sized states meant that significant German artists have been to the present twenty-four hours more likely to accept teaching posts in the academies and their successor institutions than their equivalents in England or France have been. In general German language academies imposed a item style less rigidly than was for long the case in Paris, London, Moscow or elsewhere.^{[ citation needed ]}

Writing about art [edit]

The Enlightenment menstruum saw German writers becoming leading theorists and critics of art, led by Johann Joachim Winckelmann, who exalted Ancient Greek art and, despite never visiting Greece or actually seeing many Ancient Greek statues, set out an analysis distinguishing between the main periods of Ancient Greek art, and relating them to wider historical movements. Winckelmann's work marked the entry of art history into the high-philosophical discourse of German culture; he was read avidly by Goethe and Friedrich Schiller, both of whom began to write on the history of art, and his account of the Laocoön Group occasioned a response by Lessing. Goethe had tried to train equally an artist, and his mural sketches show "occasional flashes of emotion in the presence of nature which are quite isolated in the period".^[28] The emergence of art as a major subject of philosophical speculation was solidified by the appearance of Immanuel Kant's Critique of Judgment in 1790, and was furthered by Hegel'southward Lectures on Aesthetics. In the following century, German universities were the start to teach art history every bit an bookish bailiwick, kickoff the leading position that Frg (and Republic of austria) was to occupy in the report of art history until the dispersal of scholars away in the Nazi period. Johann Gottfried Herder championed what he identified in the Gothic and Dürer every bit specifically Germanic styles, beginning an argument over the proper models for a German artist against the so-called "Tyranny of Hellenic republic over Germany" that would last near ii centuries.^[29]

Romanticism and the Nazarenes [edit]

German Romanticism saw a revival of innovation and distinctiveness in German art. Outside Germany simply Caspar David Friedrich is well-known, just there were a number of artists with very individual styles, notably Philipp Otto Runge, who like Friedrich had trained at the Copenhagen Academy and was forgotten after his death until a revival in the 20th century. Friedrich painted virtually entirely landscapes, with a distinctive Northern feel, and e'er a feeling of quasi-religious stillness. Frequently his figures are seen from behind – they like the viewer are lost in contemplation of the landscape.^[30] Runge's portraits, mostly of his own circle, are naturalistic except for his huge-faced children, but the other works in his brief career increasingly reflected a visionary pantheism.^[31] Adrian Ludwig Richter is mainly remembered for his portraits, and Carl Wilhelm Kolbe was purely an etcher (every bit well as a philologist), whose later prints show figures almost swallowed up past gigantic vegetation.^[32]

The Nazarene movement, the coinage of a mocking critic, denotes a group of early 19th-century High german Romantic painters who aimed to revive honesty and spirituality in Christian art. The principal motivation of the Nazarenes was a reaction confronting Neoclassicism and the routine fine art education of the academy system. They hoped to return to fine art which embodied spiritual values, and sought inspiration in artists of the late Middle Ages and early Renaissance, rejecting what they saw as the superficial virtuosity of later art. Their programme was not unlike to that of the English Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood in the 1850s, although the core group took it as far equally wearing special pseudo-medieval clothing. In 1810 Johann Friedrich Overbeck, Franz Pforr, Ludwig Vogel and the Swiss Johann Konrad Hottinger moved to Rome, where they occupied the abandoned monastery of San Isidoro. They were joined by Philipp Veit, Peter von Cornelius, Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld, Friedrich Wilhelm Schadow and a loose grouping of other German artists. They met upward with the Austrian romantic landscape creative person Joseph Anton Koch, (1768–1839) who became an unofficial tutor to the group. In 1827 they were joined past Joseph von Führich, and Eberhard Wächter was later associated with the group. Unlike the strong back up given to the Pre-Raphaelites by the dominant art critic of the solar day, John Ruskin, Goethe was dismissive of the Nazarenes: "This is the first instance in the history of art when real talents accept taken the fancy to course themselves backwards by retreating into their mother's womb, and thus found a new epoch in fine art."^[33]

Led by the Nazarene Schadow, son of the sculptor, the Düsseldorf school was a grouping of artists who painted more often than not landscapes, and who studied at, or were influenced by the Düsseldorf Academy, founded in 1767. The academy's influence grew in the 1830s and 1840s, and it had many American students, several of whom became associated with the Hudson River School.^[34]

Naturalism and beyond [edit]

Biedermeier refers to a fashion in literature, music, the visual arts and interior design in the period between the finish of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 and the revolutions of 1848. Biedermeier art appealed to the prosperous eye classes by detailed but polished realism, often celebrating domestic virtues, and came to dominate over French-leaning aristocratic tastes, likewise as the yearnings of Romanticism. Carl Spitzweg was a leading German artist in the style.^[35]

In the second half of the 19th century a number of styles developed, paralleling trends in other European counties, though the lack of a dominant capital city probably contributed to even more than multifariousness of styles than in other countries.^[36]

Adolph Menzel enjoyed enormous popularity both among the German language public and officialdom; at his funeral Wilhelm Two, German language Emperor walked backside his bury. He dramaticised past and contemporary Prussian military successes both in paintings and vivid wood engravings illustrating books, yet his domestic subjects are intimate and touching. He followed the evolution of early on Impressionism to create a fashion that he used for depicting grand public occasions, among other subjects similar his Studio Wall. Karl von Piloty was a leading academic painter of history subjects in the latter part of the century who taught in Munich; amid his more famous pupils were Hans Makart, Franz von Lenbach, Franz Defregger, Gabriel von Max and Eduard von Grützner. The term "Munich school" is used both of German and of Greek painting, after Greeks similar Georgios Jakobides studied under him.^{[ commendation needed ]}. Piloty'southward most influential pupil was Wilhelm Leibl. Existence the head of the and so called Leibl-Circle, an breezy group of artists with a non-academic arroyo to fine art, he had a great impact on Realism in Frg.^[37]

The Berlin Secession was a group founded in 1898 by painters including Max Liebermann, who broadly shared the artistic approach of Manet and the French Impressionists, and Lovis Corinth so still painting in a naturalistic style. The group survived until the 1930s, despite splits, and its regular exhibitions helped launch the next 2 generations of Berlin artists, without imposing a particular style.^[38] Near the cease of the century, the Benedictine Beuron Art School developed a style, mostly for religious murals, in rather muted colours, with a medievalist involvement in blueprint that drew from Les Nabis and in some means looked frontwards to Art Nouveau or the Jugendstil ("Youth Style") as it is known in German.^[39] Franz von Stuck and Max Klinger are the leading German Symbolist painters.^{[ commendation needed ]}

20th century [edit]

Even more than in other countries, German fine art in the early 20th century developed through a number of loose groups and movements, many roofing other artistic media as well, and frequently with a specific political element, as with the Arbeitsrat für Kunst and Nov Group, both formed in 1918. In 1922 The November Group, the Dresden Secession, Das Junge Rheinland, and several other progressive groups formed a "Cartel of advanced artistic groups in Germany" (Kartell fortschrittlicher Künstlergruppen in Deutschland) in an effort to proceeds exposure.^[40]

Die Brücke ("The Bridge") was one of two groups of German painters key to expressionism, the other being Der Blaue Reiter group. Die Brücke was a group of German expressionist artists formed in Dresden in 1905 past compages students who wanted to be painters: Fritz Bleyl (1880–1966), Erich Heckel (1883–1970), Ernst Ludwig Kirchner (1880–1938) and Karl Schmidt-Rottluff (1884–1976), with Max Pechstein and others later joining.^[41] The notoriously individualistic Emil Nolde (1867–1956) was briefly a member of Dice Brücke, but was at odds with the younger members of the group. Dice Brücke moved to Berlin in 1911, where information technology eventually dissolved in 1913. Perhaps their almost important contribution had been the rediscovery of the woodcut as a valid medium for original artistic expression.^{[ citation needed ]}

Der Blaue Reiter ("The Bluish Rider") formed in Munich, Federal republic of germany in 1911. Wassily Kandinsky, Franz Marc, August Macke, Alexej von Jawlensky, Marianne von Werefkin and others founded the group in response to the rejection of Kandinsky'southward painting Final Judgment from an exhibition by Neue Künstlervereinigung—another artists' group of which Kandinsky had been a member. The proper name Der Blaue Reiter derived from Marc's enthusiasm for horses, and from Kandinsky's beloved of the colour blue. For Kandinsky, blueish is the colour of spirituality—the darker the bluish, the more it awakens human being want for the eternal (run into his 1911 book On the Spiritual in Art). Kandinsky had also titled a painting Der Blaue Reiter (meet illustration) in 1903.^[42] The intense sculpture and printmaking of Käthe Kollwitz was strongly influenced by Expressionism, which also formed the starting point for the young artists who went on to bring together other tendencies within the movements of the early 20th century.^[43]

Dice Brücke and Der Blaue Reiter were both examples of tendency of early on 20th-century German language art to be "honest, direct, and spiritually engaged"^[44] The difference in how the two groups attempted this were telling, however. The artists of Der Blaue Reiter were less oriented towards intense expression of emotion and more towards theory- a tendency which would lead Kandinsky to pure brainchild. Still, it was the spiritual and symbolic properties of abstract form that were important. There were therefore Utopian tones to Kandinsky's abstractions: "Nosotros have before us an historic period of conscious cosmos, and this new spirit in painting is going paw in hand with thoughts toward an epoch of greater spirituality."^[45] Die Brücke as well had Utopian tendencies, but took the medieval craft society as a model of cooperative work that could improve club- "Everyone who with directness and authenticity conveys that which drives him to cosmos belongs to us".^[46] The Bauhaus also shared these Utopian leanings, seeking to combine fine and applied arts (Gesamtkunstwerk) with a view towards creating a better society.^{[ commendation needed ]}

Weimar period [edit]

Made in Frg (German: Den macht uns keiner nach), by George Grosz, fatigued in pen 1919, photograph-lithograph 1920.

A major feature of German language art in the early on 20th century until 1933 was a boom in the product of works of art of a grotesque style.^{[47] [48]} Artists using the Satirical-Grotesque genre included George Grosz, Otto Dix and Max Beckmann, at to the lowest degree in their works of the 1920s. Dada in Germany, the leading practitioners of which were Kurt Schwitters and Hannah Höch, was centered in Berlin, where it tended to exist more politically oriented than Dada groups elsewhere.^[49] They made important contributions to the evolution of collage as a medium for political commentary- Schwitters after developed his Merzbau, a precursor of installation art.^[49] Dix and Grosz were likewise associated with the Berlin Dada group. Max Ernst led a Dada group in Cologne, where he also practiced collage, merely with a greater interest in Gothic fantasy than in overt political content—this hastened his transition into surrealism, of which he became the leading German language practitioner.^[l] The Swiss-born Paul Klee, Lyonel Feininger and others experimented with cubism.^{[ citation needed ]}

The New Objectivity, or Neue Sachlichkeit (new matter-of-factness), was an art movement which arose in Germany during the 1920s as an outgrowth of, and in opposition to, expressionism. It is thus post-expressionist and applied to works of visual art too as literature, music, and compages. It describes the stripped-down, simplified edifice way of the Bauhaus and the Weissenhof Settlement, the urban planning and public housing projects of Bruno Taut and Ernst May, and the industrialization of the household typified by the Frankfurt kitchen. Grosz and Dix were leading figures, forming the "Verist" side of the movement with Beckmann and Christian Schad, Rudolf Schlichter, Georg Scholz (in his early work), Elfriede Lohse-Wächtler, and Karl Hubbuch. The other tendency is sometimes chosen Magic Realism, and included Anton Räderscheidt, Georg Schrimpf, Alexander Kanoldt, and Carl Grossberg. Unlike some of the other groupings, the Neue Sachlichkeit was never a formal grouping, and its artists were associated with other groups; the term was invented by a sympathetic curator, and "Magic Realism" by an fine art critic.^[51]

Plakatstil, "poster manner" in German language, was an early on fashion of poster design that began in the early 20th century, using bold, directly fonts with very unproblematic designs, in dissimilarity to Art Nouveau posters. Lucian Bernhard was a leading figure.^{[ citation needed ]}

Art in the Third Reich [edit]

The Nazi regime banned modernistic art, which they condemned as degenerate art (from the German: entartete Kunst). According to Nazi credo, modern art deviated from the prescribed norm of classical beauty. While the 1920s to 1940s are considered the heyday of mod art movements, in that location were alien nationalistic movements that resented abstract fine art, and Frg was no exception. Avant-garde German artists were now branded both enemies of the state and a threat to the High german nation. Many went into exile, with relatively few returning after World War II. Dix was one who remained, being conscripted into the Volkssturm Home Guard militia; Pechstein kept his head down in rural Pomerania. Nolde also stayed, creating his "unpainted pictures" in surreptitious after existence forbidden to paint. Beckmann, Ernst, Grosz, Feininger and others went to America, Klee to Switzerland, where he died. Kirchner committed suicide.^[52]

In July, 1937, the Nazis mounted a polemical exhibition entitled Entartete Kunst (Degenerate art), in Munich; it subsequently travelled to eleven other cities in Frg and Austria. The evidence was intended as an official condemnation of modern art, and included over 650 paintings, sculptures, prints, and books from the collections of 30 two German language museums. Expressionism, which had its origins in Federal republic of germany, had the largest proportion of paintings represented. Simultaneously, and with much pageantry, the Nazis presented the Grosse deutsche Kunstausstellung (Nifty German art exhibition) at the deluxe Haus der deutschen Kunst (Business firm of High german Art). This exhibition displayed the work of officially canonical artists such equally Arno Breker and Adolf Wissel. At the end of four months Entartete Kunst had attracted over ii one thousand thousand visitors, near iii and a half times the number that visited the nearby Grosse deutsche Kunstausstellung.^[53]

Mail-World State of war Ii art [edit]

Joseph Beuys, wearing his ubiquitous fedora, delivers a lecture on his theory of social sculpture, 1978

Mail-war fine art trends in Germany can broadly be divided into Socialist realism in the DDR (communist Eastward Germany), and in West Deutschland a diverseness of largely international movements including Neo-expressionism and Conceptualism.^{[ citation needed ]}

Notable socialist realism include or included Walter Womacka, Willi Sitte, Werner Tübke and Bernhard Heisig.

Especially notable neo-expressionists include or included Georg Baselitz, Anselm Kiefer, Jörg Immendorff, A. R. Penck, Markus Lüpertz, Peter Robert Keil and Rainer Fetting. Other notable artists who work with traditional media or figurative imagery include Martin Kippenberger, Gerhard Richter, Sigmar Polke, and Neo Rauch.^{[ citation needed ]}

Leading German conceptual artists include or included Bernd and Hilla Becher, Hanne Darboven, Hans-Peter Feldmann, Hans Haacke, and Charlotte Posenenske.^[54]

HA Schult, Trash People, shown in Cologne

The Performance artist, sculptor, and theorist Joseph Beuys was perchance the most influential German artist of the tardily 20th century.^[55] His main contribution to theory was the expansion of the Gesamtkunstwerk to include the whole of gild, as expressed by his famous expression "Anybody is an artist". This expanded concept of art, known equally social sculpture, defines everything that contributes creatively to order every bit artistic in nature. The grade this took in his oeuvre varied from richly metaphoric, almost shamanistic performances based on his personal mythology (How to Explain Pictures to a Expressionless Hare, I Like America and America Likes Me) to more directly and utilitarian expressions, such as 7000 Oaks and his activities in the Green party.^{[ citation needed ]}

Famous for their happenings are HA Schult and Wolf Vostell. Wolf Vostell is also known for his early installations with television. His first installations with television the Cycle Blackness Room from 1958 was shown in Wuppertal at the Galerie Parnass in 1963 and his installation half dozen Television receiver Dé-coll/age was shown at the Smolin Gallery ^[56] in New York also in 1963.^{[57] [58]}

The art group Gruppe SPUR included: Lothar Fischer (1933–2004), Heimrad Prem (1934–1978), Hans-Peter Zimmer (1936–1992) and Helmut Sturm (1932). The SPUR-artists met starting time at the Academy of Fine Arts, Munich and, before falling out with them, were associated with the Situationist International. Other groups include the Junge Wilde of the late 1970s to early 1980s.^{[ commendation needed ]}

documenta (sic) is a major exhibition of contemporary art held in Kassel every v years (2007, 2012...), Art Cologne is an almanac art fair, over again by and large for contemporary art, and Transmediale is an annual festival for art and digital civilisation, held in Berlin.^{[ citation needed ]}

Other contemporary German artists include Jonathan Meese, Daniel Richter, Albert Oehlen, Markus Oehlen, Rosemarie Trockel, Andreas Gursky, Thomas Ruff, Blinky Palermo, Hans-Jürgen Schlieker, Günther Uecker, Aris Kalaizis, Katharina Fritsch, Fritz Schwegler and Thomas Schütte.^{[ citation needed ]}

Notes [edit]

1. ^ Venus figurine sheds calorie-free on origins of art by early on humans Los Angeles Times, May 14, 2009, accessed Dec 11, 2009
2. ^ Terra Sigillata Museum Rheinzabern (in German)
3. ^ Encounter Hinks throughout, Chapters 1 of Beckwith and three–4 of Dodwell
4. ^ Dodwell, 32 on the Libri Carolini
5. ^ Beckwith, Chapter 2
6. ^ Beckwith, Chapter 3
7. ^ Focillon, 106
8. ^ Dodwell, Affiliate 7
9. ^ Levey, 24-7, 37 & passim, Snyder, Chapter Ii
10. ^ Snyder, 308
11. ^ Snyder, Chapters IV (painters to 1425), Vii (painters to 1500), Xiv (printmakers), & XV (sculpture).
12. ^ Focillon, 178–181
13. ^ ^{a b} Bartrum (2002)
14. ^ Snyder, Part Iii, Ch. XIX on Cranach, Luther etc.
15. ^ Snyder, Ch. XVII
16. ^ Wood, 9 – this is the main subject field of the whole volume
17. ^ Snyder, Ch. XVII, Bartrum, 1995
18. ^ Snyder, Ch. XX on the Holbeins, Bartrum (1995), 221–237 on Holbein's prints, 99–129 on the Little Masters
19. ^ Trevor-Roper, Levey
20. ^ Snyder, 298–311
21. ^ Savage, 156
22. ^ Griffiths & Carey, 24 (quotation), and Scheyer, 9 (from 1960, but the point remains valid)
23. ^ Novotny, 62–65
24. ^ Novotny, 49–59
25. ^ Griffiths & Carey, fifty–68, Novotny, 60–62
26. ^ Novotny, 60
27. ^ Gombrich, 352–357; quotes from pp. 355 & 357
28. ^ Novotny, 78 (quotation); and run into alphabetize for Winckelmann etc.
29. ^ The rhetorical phrase was coined, or popularized, by: Butler, Eliza M., "The Tyranny of Hellenic republic over Frg: a written report of the influence exercised past Greek art and verse over the not bad German language writers of the eighteenth, nineteenth, and twentieth centuries" (Cambridge Univ. Printing, London, 1935)
30. ^ Novotny, 95–101
31. ^ Novotny, 106–112
32. ^ Griffiths and Carey, 112–122
33. ^ Griffiths & Carey, 24–25 and passim, quotation from p. 24
34. ^ John K. Howat: American Paradise: The World of the Hudson River School, S. 311
35. ^ Doyle, Margaret, in Encyclopedia of the Romantic Era, 1760–1850, Volume 1, ed. Christopher John Murray, p. 89, Taylor & Francis, 2004 ISBN 1-57958-361-10, Google books
36. ^ Hamilton, 180
37. ^ Wilhelm Leibl. The art of seeing, Kunsthaus Zürich, 2019
38. ^ Hamilton, 181–184, and see index for later mentions
39. ^ Hamilton, 113
40. ^ Crockett, Dennis (1999). German Post-Expressionism : The Art of the Smashing Disorder 1918–1924. University Park, Pa: Pennsylvania State Academy Printing. p. 76. ISBN 0271043164.
41. ^ Hamilton, 197–204, and Award & Fleming, 569–576
42. ^ Laurels & Fleming, 569–576, and Hamilton, 215–221
43. ^ Hamilton, 189–191
44. ^ Hunter, Jacobus, and Wheeler (2000) p. 113
45. ^ qtd. Hunter et al p. 118
46. ^ From the Manifesto of Die Brücke, qtd Hunter et al p. 113
47. ^ Esti Sheinberg (2000) Irony, Satire, Parody and the Grotesque in the Music of Dmitrii Shostakovich, pp.248–nine, ISBN 978-0-7546-0226-two
48. ^ Pamela Kort (2004) Comic Grotesque, Prestel Publishing ISBN 978-3-7913-3195-9
49. ^ ^{a b} Hunter, Jacobus, and Wheeler (2000) pp. 173–77
50. ^ Hamilton, 473–478
51. ^ Hamilton, 478–479
52. ^ "Ernst Ludwig Kirchner Biography, Art, and Analysis of Works". Retrieved 2015-09-29 .
53. ^ Hamilton, 486–487
54. ^ Marzona, Daniel. (2005) Conceptual Art. Cologne: Taschen. Diverse pages
55. ^ Moma Focus, retrieved xvi Dec 2009
56. ^ Rolf Wedewer. Wolf Vostell. Retrospektive, 1992, ISBN 3-925520-44-9
57. ^ Wolf Vostell, Cycle Black Room, 1958, installation with television
58. ^ Wolf Vostell, 6 TV Dé-coll/age, 1963, installation with television

References [edit]

Bartrum, Giulia (1995); German Renaissance Prints, 1490–1550; British Museum Press, 1995, ISBN 0-7141-2604-7

Bartrum, Giulia (2002), Albrecht Dürer and his legacy: the graphic work of a Renaissance artist, British Museum Press, 2002, ISBN 978-0-7141-2633-3

Beckwith, John. Early Medieval Art: Carolingian, Ottonian, Romanesque, Thames & Hudson, 1964 (rev. 1969), ISBN 0-500-20019-Ten

Clark, Sir Kenneth, Mural into Art, 1949, folio refs to Penguin edn of 1961

Dodwell, C.R.; The Pictorial arts of the Due west, 800–1200, 1993, Yale Upwards, ISBN 0-300-06493-four

Focillon, Henri, The Art of the W in the Center Ages, Volume 2, Gothic Art, Phaidon/Oxford University Press, 3rd edn, 1980, ISBN 0-7148-2100-4

Gombrich, Eastward.H., The Story of Art, Phaidon, 13th edn. 1982. ISBN 0-7148-1841-0

Gossman, Lionel, Making of a Romantic Icon: The Religious Context of Friedrich Overbeck's 'Italy und Germania.' American Philosophical Lodge, 2007. ISBN 0-87169-975-three. [1]

Griffiths, Antony and Carey, Francis; High german Printmaking in the Historic period of Goethe, 1994, British Museum Printing, ISBN 0-7141-1659-9

Hamilton, George Heard, Painting and Sculpture in Europe, 1880–1940 (Pelican History of Art), Yale University Press, revised third edn. 1983 ISBN 0-fourteen-056129-3

Harbison, Craig. The Art of the Northern Renaissance, 1995, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, ISBN 0-297-83512-2

Hugh Honour and John Fleming, A World History of Art,1st edn. 1982 & afterward editions, Macmillan, London, page refs to 1984 Macmillan 1st edn. paperback. ISBN 0-333-37185-ii

Hunter, Sam; John Jacobus, Daniel Wheeler (2000) Modern Art: Painting, Sculpture, Compages. New York: Prentice Hall and Harry N. Abrams

Kitzinger, Ernst, Early Medieval Art at the British Museum, (1940) 2nd edn, 1955, British Museum

Michael Levey, Painting at Courtroom, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London, 1971

Novotny, Fritz, Painting and Sculpture in Europe, 1780–1880 (Pelican History of Art), Yale University Press, second edn. 1971 ISBN 0-14-056120-X

George Savage, Porcelain Through the Ages, Penguin, (2nd edn.) 1963

Schultz, Ellen (ed). Gothic and Renaissance Art in Nuremberg, 1986, New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art, ISBN 978-0-87099-466-one

Scheyer, Ernst, Baroque Painting in Deutschland and Republic of austria: A Gap in American Studies, Art Journal, Vol. 20, No. 1 (Autumn, 1960), pp. 9–eighteen, JSTOR online text

Snyder, James; Northern Renaissance Art, 1985, Harry N. Abrams, ISBN 0-thirteen-623596-4

Trevor-Roper, Hugh; Princes and Artists, Patronage and Ideology at 4 Habsburg Courts 1517–1633, Thames & Hudson, London, 1976, ISBN 0-500-23232-six

Forest, Christopher, Albrecht Altdorfer and the Origins of Landscape, 1993, Reaktion Books, London, ISBN 0-948462-46-ix

Further reading [edit]

• German masters of the nineteenth century: paintings and drawings from the Federal Democracy of Germany . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 1981. ISBN978-0-87099-263-6.
• Nancy Marmer, "Isms on the Rhine: Westkunst," Art in America, Vol. 69, November 1981, pp. 112–123.

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